Drug References
What Is Adrenaline, and how does it work?
The adrenal glands release adrenaline, or epinephrine as It Isalso called, in response to stress. The fight-or flight response is a natural evolutionary reaction to perceived or real dangers that helps prepare the body for either "fighting" or "flighting". Adrenaline causes an increase in blood pressure and heart rate as well as increased respiration and glucose production. This hormone also releases stored energy allowing you to react quickly to any situation....
Adderall is a drug that has been used to treat ADHD.
Adderall, a stimulant drug prescribed by a doctor to treat ADHD and Narcolepsy. Adderall is a brand name that refers to a combination of amphetamine and dextroamphetamine. These two drugs are remarkably similar chemically. Adderall can also be called'speed,' or "uppers" in informal terms. ...
What is Ativan
Ativan (also known as Lorazepam) is a type of benzodiazepine used to treat Anxiety , Insomnia and seizures. It Is available in certain countries without prescription, as well as being prescribed by doctors. The medication calms the nervous system and reduces symptoms like restlessness, irritability and agitation. This medication can help reduce withdrawal symptoms from drugs or alcohol. ...
What is Doryx? What are its uses?
Doryx, a trademark for Doxycyclinebelongs to the tetracycline class of drugs. The drug is prescribed to treat many Bacterial infections including respiratory infections, skin infection, Lyme's disease and urinary infections. Also, it can be used to treat malaria. Doxycycline prevents bacteria from producing proteins essential to their growth and existence. Doryx: Uses and Benefits Doryx can be used to treat many bacterial infections including respiratory infections, ...
What is Omnicef?
Omnicef is also called Cefdinirand it's an antibiotic used to treat many Bacterial infections. Cephalosporins are a group of antibiotics that work by stopping bacteria from creating their protective cell wall. It Istherefore effective against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Most commonly, Omnicef can be prescribed to treat respiratory infections such as pneumonia and bronchitis. I...
Bupropion: What you need to know
Bupropion is also called amfebutamone or Wellbutrin. It's used for treating Depression, seasonal effective disorder, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Sometimes It Isprescribed as a way to quit smoking. Bupropion increases levels of norepinephrine and dopamine in the brain. This affects mood, concentration and focus. What are the uses of bupropion? The use of bupropion in the treatm...
Ceftriaxone: What is it and what are its uses?
Ceftriaxone is also known as Rocephin and it's a cephalosporin of third generation. This fast-acting medicine is used to treat infections in the skin, lungs, urinary system, and other body parts. The medication works by preventing the Bacteriafrom growing. Ceftriaxone can be prescribed for severe infections like pneumonia, meningitis bronchitis septicemia and gonorrhea. Ceftriaxone is used to treat some sexually-transmitted diseases, as well as bone and joint infe...
What is Celecoxib?
Celecoxib, a nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug, is commonly prescribed to relieve pain and inflammation due to various medical conditions, such as ankylosing spondylitis, arthritis and menstrual cramps. Celecoxib is also sold under the brand names Celebrexor Celocid. Celecoxib blocks the hormones prostaglandins which cause swelling and pain. Celecoxib: Uses and Benefits Celecoxib has been shown in studiesto be effective at rel...
What is catapres?
It Isalso called Clonidine, and it's a medication prescribed to treat ADHD. Catapres belongs to the class of drugs known as centrally acting beta-2-agonists. It works by reducing the levels of chemicals such as norepinephrine in the blood, which can increase blood pressure. Off-label, Catapres is also used to treat Tourette syndrome, hot flashes during menopause, and withdrawal from drug and opioid addiction. The Uses and Benefits of Catapres Catapres is used...
What is Citalopram?
Citalopram is an antidepressant drug that goes by the brand name Celexa. It belongs to a class of medications called selective serotonin reuptake inhibits (SSRIs). The drug works by altering brain chemicals that can cause Anxiety, Depressionor panic attacks. Citalopram can be used to treat mental disorders such as panic disorder and major depression. Citalopram: Uses and Benefits Citalopram can be used for treating major depression di...
What is Vistaril? Uses and benefits, side effects, and more
Vistaril, the brand name of hydroxyzine, is an antihistamine that treats allergic dermatitis and itching as well as Anxiety, nausea and vomiting. The topical and oral forms of hydroxyzine pamoate are available. The drug is sold under several brand names including AtaraxVistacot Alamon and Hyzine. Hydroxyzine Pamoate blocks histamine, which is a chemical released by your body when you experience an allergic...
Valsartan: Uses, benefits, and side effects
Valsartan, an ARB (angiotensin-receptor blocker), has been prescribed for hypertension treatment since 1996. Also known as Diovanand Co-Diovan. It works by blocking certain substances in the body that cause blood vessels to tighten. This allows blood to flow better and heart pumps more efficiently. Valsartan: What are its uses? Valsartan's primary use is to treat high blood pressure. Valsartan is used for treating congestive cardiac failure and preventing stroke i...
Vicodin is a pain reliever.
Vicodin, also known as Hydrocodone/ Acetaminophen, is a powerful prescription drug used to treat moderate to severe pain. This is an opioid-based analgesic that works by altering the way your brain reacts to pain. Vicodin combines hydrocodone with acetaminophen. Acetaminophen, a milder form of pain relief that may increase hydrocodone's effects is combined with an opioid pain reliever called Hydrocodone. ...
What Is Aricept? What Are its uses?
Aricept is also known as donepezil, and it's a prescription drug used to treat mild-moderate dementia caused by Alzheimer's. This acetylcholinesterase inhibitor works by stopping the breakdown of the chemical responsible for language, memory and thought in the brain. It Isusually prescribed with other medication and lifestyle modifications to improve mental function. Aricept: Its Uses Aricept has been shown to slow the progression of Alzheimer’s in certain patient...
What is Xenical?
Xenical (also known as Orlistat) is a medication that can only be obtained by prescription. It's used to reduce weight and treat obesity. The medication is available as a tablet or capsule. It works by blocking the absorption and storage of body fat. FDA has approved the drug for long-term usage and It Isconsidered to be safe when taken according to instructions. Xenical: Uses and Benefits Xenical can be prescribed to individuals who have a body mass index (BMI) gr...
Benazepril is a drug that can be used to treat certain conditions.
Benazepril, also known by its brand name Lotensin, is an angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor used to treat high blood pressure in adults and children. The drug works by blocking certain chemicals which tighten blood vessels. This allows the blood flow to be more fluid and heart pumping to become more efficient. Benazepril is also used to lower the stroke risk in people with heart disease. ...
Aspirin: What you need to know
Aspirin is also called acetylsalicylic acids (ASA). It's a medication that can be used for pain relief, inflammation, and fever. Aspirin is available as tablets, capsules and creams. Since centuries, it has been widely used to reduce pain and fever. It Isalso one of the most commonly used medicines in the world. Aspirin, when used as prescribed, is safe and generally effective. However there are some side effects that you should be aware of. Aspi...
Atazanavir: A Comprehensive Guide
Atazanavir is also called Reyataz and it's used for HIV treatment. The drug belongs to the protease-inhibitor group, and works by stopping the virus's reproduction in the body. Atazanavir, which is often prescribed with antiretroviral medications to lower HIV levels in blood, has shown positive results. Atazanavir may also have side effects, such as nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, skin rashes, and changes to liver enzymes....
What is Atenolol?
Atenolol is also known as Tenormin or Apo-Atenolol. It's a drug used to treat heart problems such irregular heartbeats, myocardial ischemia, congestive failure, and high blood pressure. The drug belongs to a group of beta-blockers that reduce the effect of Adrenalinein the body. Atenolol slows down the heartbeat and lowers blood pressure by blocking receptors within your heart. Atenolol: Uses and Benefits Atenolol was studied to tr...
Verapamil: A Comprehensive Overview
Verapamil, also called calan, verelan or covera is a calcium-channel blocker. This drug is prescribed to treat heart rhythm problems, high blood pressure and chest pain. Verapamil relaxes the heart muscle and helps your blood vessels to expand, allowing more blood flow. Verapamil is used to treat heart rhythm problems, high blood pressure and chest pain. This medication is particularly effective for people who've already suffered a stroke or heart attack. You...
Vancomycin, What you need to know
Vancomycinis also called Vancocin or Lyphocin. It's an antibiotic used to treat various bacterial infections. The glycopeptide belongs to the family of antibiotics that inhibit bacterial cell walls. Vancomycin is a drug that has been used since 1950 and it's still one of the best antibiotics to treat infections due to resistant bacteria. Vancomycin: Uses and Benefits The primary use of vancomycin is to treat severe infections that are caused by Gram posit...
What is Triamcinolone?
Triamcinolone is also called nasacort and kenalog. It's a corticosteroid that can be used for inflammatory diseases such as skin disease, allergies and asthma. Triamcinolone suppresses the immune response to allergens, irritants, and other inflammatory substances. Triamcinolone is also used for its pain-relieving properties and to treat swelling. Triamcinolone: Uses and Benefits Triamcinolone is effective for treating many medical conditions including arthritis, ...
What is Augmentin?
It Isused as an antibiotic to treat many Bacterial infections. Amoxicillin Trihydrate, clavulanate Potassium, is the main component of Augmentin. It comes in different forms including liquid suspensions, tablets and IV injections. It is also known by its generic name, amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, and its brand names, including Augmentin Duo, Augmentin ES, Augmentin XR, and Clavam. Augmentin: Uses and Benefits It is used primarily to treat bacterial...
What is Proscar
Finasterideis the generic name of Proscar, which is a drug used to treat benign prostatic hyperplasia in men. Also known as an alpha blocker, it prevents testosterone from being converted into DHT which causes the prostate to enlarge. Sometimes Proscar can be prescribed to treat male-pattern baldness. Proscar: What are its uses? The main use of Proscar for BPH is to reduce the size of ...
Tegretol: What You Should Know about This Anticonvulsant.
Tegretol is a drug that prevents and treats epileptic seizures. The drug is used for bipolar disorder and trigeminal neuropathy, which causes a painful condition of the nerves. Tegretol can also be known as Carbamazepine, which is sold by the brands Carbatrol (also called Epitol), Equetro, Tegretol XR, or Epitol. Tegretol is used for what? Tegretol has a wide range of uses, including the treatment of partial seizures, mixed seizures, tonic clonic...
What is Trazodone?
Trazodone is also called Desyrelor Oleptro. It's a medication prescribed to treat Depression. This antidepressant belongs to the serotonin stimulator and modulator (SMS), which is used for mood elevation. Trazodone can also be prescribed to treat Anxiety, chronic pain, and Insomnia. Trazodone: Uses and Benefits Most commonly, Trazodone can be used to treat Major Depressive Disorder (MDD). A studyin the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry found that trazodone is more effective than pl...
Montelukast: An Overview
Montelukast can be used for treating asthma, allergies and exercise-induced respiratory bronchoconstriction. Singulairis another brand name that montelukast has been commonly linkedto. Montelukast, a leukotriene antagonist (LTRA), works by blocking leukotrienes that are substances which cause inflammation. It helps reduce symptoms such as wheezing and shortness of breathe, chest tightness, coughing and asthma. Montelukast: Uses and Applications Montelukast can...
What Is Megace? What Are its Applications?
Megace is also called megestrol, and it's a synthetic version of the female hormone Progesterone. Megace is mainly prescribed to treat anorexia and cachexia as well as other conditions related to AIDS. It has also been prescribed to treat certain forms of endometrial and breast cancer. The most common form is an oral tablet or suspension. Dosage and duration vary according to the condition of the patient and their response to treatment. Megace must only be used under a physician's s...
Metformin is a drug that helps to reduce the body's calorie intake.
Metformin is a medication prescribed to treat diabetes type 2. It's also sold under the brand names Fortamet (fortamet.com), Glumetza (glumetza.com), Riomet, Fortamet.com, and Glucophage XR. It works by decreasing liver glucose production and increasing Insulinsensitivity. The drug is sometimes combined with other medications to treat PCOS (polycystic Ovarian Syndrome). Metformin: Uses and Benefits Metformin is extensively studied for treating type 2 diabetics. Multiple clinical ...
Metoclopramide: A Comprehensive Guide
Metoclopramide is also called Reglan and Maxolon. It's a prescription medication used to treat digestive issues like nausea, heartburn, vomiting and indigestion. The drug is used for treating gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), diabetes gastroparesis and nausea and vomiting caused by chemotherapy. Metoclopramide speeds up food movement through the stomach. The drug is available as a tablet, an injection or a syrup. What is Metoclopramide? Metoclopramide, a dopamine-antagon...
Metoprolol - Side Effects, Benefits and Dosage
Me Toprolol can be used to treat high blood pressure and angina. It Isalso prescribed for heart failure. Metoprolol belongs to the beta-blocker class, which is useful for reducing heart workload by blocking hormones. This allows the heart to be beat slower and less forcefully. Metoprolol comes in several brands, including LopressorToprol XL and Seloken. It is also sold as a generic. Metoprolol can be prescribed for hypertension, angina and heart failure. The drug works by blocking certai...
Metronidazole - A Comprehensive Overview
Metronidazole is also called Flagyl and it's a wide-spectrum antibacterial commonly used to treat bacterial infections. This drug is effective and has a variety of applications, but there are also side effects to consider. This article will examine the benefits and side effects of taking metronidazole. ...
Mirapex Overview
Mirapex, also known as Pramipexole is the brand name of a drug that belongs to the class of drugs called dopamine-agonists. The drug is prescribed to relieve symptoms such as stiffness and slow movement. Restless Legs Syndrome, which causes an urge for the legs to be moved due to unpleasant sensations, is sometimes treated with this medication. What is Mirapex Mirapex is prescribed to treat symptoms of Parkinson’s disease...
What You Should Know about Morphine
Morphine, also known as Ms Contin , Kadian and Duramorph is a pain medication that treats moderate to severe discomfort. Also known as Diamorphine MS Contin Kadian and Duramorph. Morphine is available orally, intravenously and intramuscularly depending on patient needs. People who suffer from extreme pain, such as those who have had surgery or trauma, are often prescribed morphine. ...
Lovenox: Side effects, benefits and uses
Lovenox is also called Enoxaparin , and it's an anticoagulant drug that prevents blood clots from forming in people at high risk for deep vein thrombosis. Low molecular-weight heparin can be injected. Lovenox is a low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) that can be taken by injection. ...
Risperidone is a drug that treats risperidone.
Risperdalis an antipsychotic drug used for treating schizophrenia and bipolar disorders. The drug works by changing the effect of neurotransmitters, such as dopamine or serotonin in the brain. Risperidone comes in tablets, solutions, and injections with extended release. Risperidone: Uses and Benefits Risperidone primarily treats psychosis in schizophrenia and bipolar disorders. Rispe...
What is Oxaliplatin?
Oxaliplatin is a chemotherapy medication used for treating certain cancers. It's also called Eloxatin and oxaloplatin. The drug belongs to a class called platinum-containing drugs and blocks the growth of cancerous cells. Oxaliplatin can be used for a variety of cancers, including colorectal, stomach and pancreatic. ...
What is penicillin?
Penicillin belongs to a class of antibiotics used for treating Bacterial infections. The first antibiotic discovered is widely used to this day. Penicillin comes from fungus Penicillium which makes a naturally occurring form of penicillin. Amoxicillin is the most common form of penicillin. Other forms include benzathine, procaine, and oxacillin. Penicillin is a drug that has been around for many decades. ...
What is Potassium Chloride (K2Cl)?
The mineral potassium chloride, or KCl as It Isalso called "muriate" and "chloride", is essential for human health. This salt is composed of both potassium and chloride. It comes in many different forms, including tablets, capsules and granules. Sometimes it is used for food preservation and processing. Potassium chloride is also used in animal feed and agricultural fertilizers. Potassium regulates fluid and electrolyte equilibrium, nerve impulse transmission and muscle contrac...
What is Prednisone?
Prednisone, a corticosteroid synthetic drug, is used for a wide range of ailments, such as allergic reactions, arthritis, skin conditions and other inflammations. Also known as Deltasone, Rayos, Sterapred, Sterapred DS, It Isalso sold under a variety of brand names. Prednisone suppresses the immune system and reduces inflammation. It also decreases the ability of the body to fight infection. Prednisone: Uses and Benefits Since...
What Is Progesterone?
Progesterone (also known as P4) is a hormone that has an important function in female reproduction. The corpus luteum is a temporary gland of the ovary that secretes progesterone after ovulation. During pregnancy, the adrenal glands as well as the placenta produce small quantities of progesterone. Progesterone is produced gradually during the first half menstrual cycles to prepare the uterus in preparation for the fertilisation of an egg. In the absence of pregnancy, progesterone drops ...
Macrobid is a new term.
It Isprescribed to prevent and treat urinary tract infection (UTI). This antibiotic works by killing Bacteriawhich cause UTIs. Macrobid comes as either a tablet or capsule, in 50mg and 100mg strengths. The usual dosage is twice daily. Monurol, Furadantin and other brand names are common. Macrobid: Uses and Applications Macrobid can be prescribed to treat urinary tract infection caused by specific types of bacteria. Escherichia, Klebsiella, Enterococc...
Lexapro: What is it and what are its uses?
Lexapro is also known as Escitalopram. It's an antidepressant used to treat symptoms associated with major Depressiondisorder (MDD). The drug belongs to a group of medications called selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). SSRIs increase levels of serotonin in the brain, a neurotransmitter that regulates mood. Lexapro can be prescribed to treat MDD or Anxietydisorders as a first line treatment. Other mental conditions, such as post-traumatic disorder (PTSD), premenstrual disorde...
Tramadol: Uses, Side effects and Benefits
Tramadol, also known as Ultram, Ryzolt or Conzip is an opioid pain medication that treats moderate to severe discomfort. Also known as Ultram or Ryzolt. Tramadol changes the way that your brain and nervous systems respond to pain. Doctors usually prescribe it to relieve pain caused by injuries, surgeries or chronic conditions. What is it exactly? Tramadol, a synthetic opioid, is made from the opium poppies and has the same effects as Morphine. Tramadol ...
What is Telmisartan?
Telmisartan is also called Micardis and Kinzalmono. It's a blood pressure medication. The drug belongs to the class of angiotensin-receptor blockers, which works by blocking certain hormones that tighten blood vessels. Telmisartan works by blocking the hormones that cause blood vessels to tighten. Telmisartan was also studied to determine if it could reduce cardiovascular risk and stroke as well as provid...
Claritin: What are its uses?
Claritin is a medication that relieves the itching and rashes caused by allergies. Claritin is commonly prescribed to treat sinus infections, colds and coughs. Claritin comes in prescription as well as over-the counter (OTC). Claritin contains Loratadine . This antihistamine works by blocking histamine in the body, which is a chemical that can cause allergy symptoms. Histamine, a chemical that occurs naturally in the human body and plays an importa...
Clobetasol, its uses, side effects and warnings
Clobetasol can be used for a number of skin inflammations. The drug belongs to a class known as corticosteroids. It can be prescribed either in cream, ointment or foam. Temovate is another brand name. Clobetasol is also known as Clobex Olux Cormax and Embeline. Clobetasol can be used for a wide range of skin conditions such as eczema and dermatitis. Clobetasol works by decreasing inflammation and itching, which can be caused by these skin conditions. Seborrheic Dermat...
Topiramate: Side effects, benefits and uses
Topiramate, also known as Topamax, is an epilepsy drug. The drug is prescribed to treat seizures due to epilepsy or migraines. The drug works by reducing nerve activity that causes migraines and seizures in the brain. Sometimes It Isprescribed to stabilize mood in people who have bipolar disorder. Topiramate is a drug that can be used to treat a variety of conditions. Topiramate belong...
What is Cytomel
Cytomel is the name of the synthetic triiodothyronine, also known as T3, which is used for treating hypothyroidism. Sometimes It Isused off-label to help with weight loss. It is prescribed as an addition to Levothyroxine(another synthetic thyroid hormone) to maintain normal T3 levels in the body. Cytomel is also known as Tertroxin and Thybon. Cytomel: Uses and Benefits The main use of Cytomel for hypothyroidism is to reduce the amount ...
Terbinafine is a term used to describe a substance.
Antifungal medications such as Terbinafine are used to treat fungal skin infections, nail infections, and hair growths. Also known as Lamisil, It Isavailable both in oral and topically applied forms. Terbinafine's active ingredient is benzoic acid, a synthetic derivative that has broad antifungal properties. Terbinafine inhibits the growth of fungal cells, prevents their spread and eventually kills them. Uses Of Terbinafine Terbinafine can ...
Digoxin: A Comprehensive Overview
Digoxin, a type of medication that treats heart failure or certain abnormal heart rhythms, is available in the market. Also known as Lanoxin and marketed under the name "Lanoxin", It Isa medication used to treat heart failure. Since centuries, it has been used as a treatment for heart problems. However, only in recent years has its effectiveness been extensively studied. What is Digoxin? Digoxin, a glycoside cardiac derived...
What is Protonix? What are its uses?
Protonix (also known as Pantoprazole) is a proton-pump inhibitor (PPI). It's used for treating gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), erosive esophagitis and Zollinger Ellison syndrome. The medication reduces the acidity in the stomach, which helps to relieve symptoms like heartburn, swallowing difficulties, and persistent cough. Protonix comes as either an intravenous injection or an oral tablet. Protonix: Uses and Benef...
A Brief Overview of Singulair
Montelukast, or Singulair as It Isalso called, is an asthmatic and allergy medication that's available on prescription. The drug is classified as leukotriene antagonists (LTRAs) and blocks the leukotrienes that are the chemicals responsible for inflammation. The tablet or granule version of Singulair can be taken in the evening, once daily. FDA approved since 1998, Singulair is one of most prescribed medication for asthma and allergie...
What is Duoneb? What are the uses of Duoneb?
Duoneb is also known scientifically as IpratropiumBromide & AlbuterolSulfate. It Isa combination medication of two drugs; ipratropium (an anticholinergic), and albuterol (a bronchodilator). Most commonly, it is used to treat respiratory problems caused by COPD, asthma or other chronic obstructive lung diseases. It works by relaxing airways, making it easier to breathe for patients. Duoneb comes in many forms including tablets, inhal...
What is Ezetimibe? What are the uses of this drug?
Ezetimibe lowers cholesterol in the blood and specifically LDL (low-density Lipoprotein). The medication is available under several brand names, including Zetia, Ezetrol and generic. Ezetimibe prevents cholesterol absorption in the intestinal tract. It can reduce LDL cholesterol and triglycerides, as well as increase HDL cholesterol. Ezetimibe can be prescribed for people who are at high risk of stroke or heart disease, especially when statins and other medications that lower cho...
Haldol: What is it and what are its uses?
Haldol is also called haloperidol. It's a drug used to treat mental disorders like Tourette Syndrome, schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. The medication works by altering the natural brain substances. It's usually prescribed when the other medication hasn't worked, or if it can be tolerated. Haldol is used to treat a wide range of conditions such as Anxiety, agitation and irritability. What are the uses of Hald...
Itraconazole: A Comprehensive Look
Itraconazole (also known as Sporanox) is an antifungal medication that can treat many different fungal infections. This drug is used to treat fungal nail infection, yeast infections and serious fungal infections. This treatment is effective because it inhibits the growth of fungal organisms. Itraconazole comes in oral and topical form. Oral forms are usually taken twice daily while topical applications c...
What is Ketoconazole?
Ketoconazole, an antifungal drug used for treating a wide range of fungal infection. The oral tablet is also available in topical cream and shampoo form. Ketoconazole is most commonly known by the brand names Nizoral or Extina. Ketoconazole inhibits the growth of yeast and fungi-like organisms such as Candida albicans that can cause skin, scalp, and nail infections. Ketoconazole has been tested for other ailments, including prostate cancer, tumors of the adrenal glan...
What Is Lamictal? What are its uses?
Lamotrigine is an anticonvulsant used for treating seizures among adults and young children. Lamotrigine is used in the treatment of bipolar disorder among adults and teenagers aged 13 years and older. Off-label, It Is prescribed to treat migraine headaches and neuropathic and Anxiety pain. It can also be used for mood stabilization in people who have major Depression disorder. Lamictal comes in oral...
Zyrtec: Everything You Need to Know
Zyrtec, a brand of cetirizine is an antihistamine that's used to treat allergies. Also available as a generic, It Ismarketed under the names Reactine (also known as Zodac), Zirtek, Zodac and Alerid. Zyrtec can be used for hay fever and pet allergies. It is also effective against dust mite allergies. What is it about? Zyrtec, an antihistamine type drug, works by blocking the histamine in your body. Histamine is responsible for allergic reactions. The ...